Decision makers often bring their different perspectives to adaptation planning based on their purpose and objectives and particular climate risks they are seeking to address. These purposes lead to multiple different ‘entry points’ which frame the scope, activities and therefore outcomes of the adaptation intervention. Four common entry points for adaptation are managing risks to:

1. governance
2. assets
3. community and sustainable development
4. ecosystems and species

Adaptation decision making at these different entry points may require different interventions. Development pathways will structure and re-shape the capacity of the people and the ecosystems to adapt and respond to climate change threats for generations to come. Some adaptation pathways that focus on the above points in isolation may modify the landscape leaving negative 'upstream' or 'downstream' legacies that are difficult or costly to change and reduce the opportunity for EbA, creating disconnections and loss of resilience in social ecological systems.  The research demonstrated that EbA is often a low-cost option over the long-term (and often in the short-term) compared to engineering and infrastructure options, and provides multiple social and wellbeing benefits.

Recommendations

• Ecosystem maintenance, protection and enhancement is given priority in all new development and adaptation planning decisions.
• Due consideration is given to long-term legacy of isolated adaptation projects and decisions

Adaptation is still commonly considered on a project by project basis for a particular area or situation. At a single intervention level, EbA can be considered one end of a nature-capital works spectrum, where interventions that maintain or improve the integrity and functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide are a primary objective.

It is recognised that each option may be appropriate in different places at different times, however, once infrastructure assets (e.g. roads, seawalls) are built, certain pathways may be locked in or out, reducing the capacity to undertake EbA activities in the future. By limiting adaptation planning to project-scale activities or by only looking at impacts in one of the four entry points (see point 1 above), opportunities to support long-term system-wide improvements are overlooked.

An EbA approach views adaptation through a systems thinking lens that considers the interactions and interconnections within and across community, culture, governance, economies and ecosystems and considers how ecosystem servicesecosystem services Ecosystem services are the goods and services provided by nature which are experienced as or transformed into benefits for human society. They are generally classed as 'provisioning' (material things that are consumed), 'regulating' (non-material benefits derived from habitat functioning), and 'cultural' (non-material benefits obtained from an experience of nature, including tourism). and community wellbeing are maintained or enhanced over the long-term. In considering what decisions to make, an EbA approach weighs up the costs and benefits of particular options and impacts in combination as well as cumulative impacts over time and whether options in future are restricted because of choices made now.

Recommendation

• Adopt an EbA Approach incorporating systems thinking in adaptation and development planning that considers influences and impacts across ecological, social and economic factors.

Climate change impacts and adaptation options are highly specific to the context in which they are applied. Local, national and regional contexts - land, water, climate, people, economies and so on all create unique situations which influence the options available in that context. In the case study area of Tanna and Vanuatu key influencing factors identified include:

• Vanuatu is at a crossroads. There is extreme pressure to develop infrastructure and economies, supported by international financing, that put pressure on natural resources and will undermine availability of ecosystem services to local people in the future, without an integrated and systems approach to adapation planning
• Vanuatu is located in a high climate risk area, vulnerable to natural disasters including cyclones, floods and on Tanna an active volcano adds additional complexity - providing opportunities (for tourism) and constraints (affecting crop production)
• Tanna's coral reefs provide a multitude of services being affected by climate change of which the tourism and fishing industries are the most vulnerable
• A highly unique governance arrangement sets the stage for adaptation - where customary land management - 'kastomkastom Kastom is a pidgin word (Bislama/English) used to refer to traditional culture, including religion, economics, art and magic in Melanesia. The word derives from the Australian English pronunciation of 'custom'. Kastom is mostly not written, only passed down through teachings and stories and includes places, stories, objects and animals and plants.' (decentralised and traditional) is recognised within the more centralised (Westernised) governance processes being imposed at the national level, this provides additional complexity for planning

Recommendation

• Decision-makers draw on studies that work at the smaller, local scale, to identify the ecological, social, technological, political, governance and economic context in which climate risks, impacts and options for adaptation are situated.
• Mapping local to broader context and how the local systems interact and are shaped or reinforced with this setting as a foundation for understanding appropriate adaptation options and how they can be scaled up.

Local baselines and monitoring are a foundation for evidence-based adaptation planning and decision-making. To empower local communities and governments to plan accordingly, based on evidence, a significant program of data collection and monitoring is needed to establish local baselines and monitor change over time. Much of the climate modelling is based on large scale regional and global models which do not give an accurate picture or projection of processes and impacts in particular places, therefore impacting effectiveness of decisions made based on this information.

Recommendations

• A significant program of appropriately designed data collection and monitoring is needed to establish local-scale processes and interactions across Pacific Islands and to inform evidence-based decision-making
• Monitoring programs should include capacity building of local people in new tools and knowledge to support their decision-making
• Future scenario modelling at the local scale should be continued to be able to effectively plan EbA

Scenarios that consider not only the possible impacts of climate change, but how these interact and feed into one another will be important to consider the range of possible futures that may arise at the local level, given the local, regional and global factors at play. First, second and third order impacts may play out differently. Interactions and feedback loops between systems, such as community activities, policy initiatives, economic development activities and coral reefs, for example will be non-linear and difficult to measure, but it is necessary to build the knowledge base to understand these multiples scales of impacts, shifts over time and cumulative impacts to be able to plan for possible future situations.

Recommendation

• Building on a good scientific and traditional knowledge base for adaptation, the complex interactions and feedback loops that shape future scenarios should be articulated and integrated into coastal and development planning processes

Collaboration between all relevant stakeholders can ensure that decision making processes support development of sustainable livelihoods. Particular emphasis should be on coastal adaptation and development planning informed by local people, that considers the values, perspectives, customs and interactions of locals with ecosystems. Given the localisation of climate change impacts and adaptation options this approach is a necessary foundation for identifying national policies and plans.

In Vanuatu and Tanna in particular, 'kastom' is a strong influence on how resources are used and managed and customary land management is recognised at the national level. Adaptation planning must integrate scientific understanding with local knowledge and management processes to find fit-for-purpose, fit-for-place adaptation interventions.

Recommendation

• Establishing a knowledge hub and online interface to support scientific studies, utilising local knowledge and know-how is critical to building social learning for EbA
• Integrate diverse perspectives and knowledge into all aspects of projects through collaborative and participatory processes

Given the importance of local people in effective EbA, support through collaborative research programs, sharing of research findings, and education programs to build understanding of underlying issues and opportunities will be an important mechanism to support sustainable outcomes into the future. As highlighted during the pandemic, with restricted travel and support from external actors, supporting local government agencies, community groups, leaders and members to conduct their own assessments and evidence-based decision-making will be essential.

Building local community skills through training and breaking down barriers to access to scientific knowledge as well as facilitating dialogue between scientists, community members, civil society organisations and governments and community leaders should be part of any research program. Targeted programs can support community members with technical and scientific knowledge and researchers, government and other agencies with understanding local perspectives and management approaches. This collaborative and interdisciplinary approach is necessary for full impact to be realised.

Recommendation

• Education facilities and training programs are made available to local community leaders and members
• Education pathways for professional development of planners and policy decision-makers build on the latest research findings
• All scientific research projects incorporate and work with local and provincial governments to channel new knowledge into accessible formats and outreach activities

Declaration of protected areas or could help to maintain a healthy ecosystem and build resilience to coastal hazards and climate change impacts. For example, avoiding dredging a reef or prohibiting fishing would help local habitat restoration as coral reefs are very fragile ecosystems. Land-based sources of pollution such as nutrients from sewage or fertilizers damage the reef and reduce the resilience to climate impacts.

With the increase of intense storms events, the reef gets damaged and loses the natural mechanisms of healthy reefs which reduce wave energy on the shore and then erosion. Establishing protected areas reduces human-induced stress and would help the restoration of the reef. However 'community conservation management plans' that work in collaboration with communities to identify local needs, educate communities on the scientific data and likely future outcomes of particular paths of action will help to ensure that local communities do not bear the brunt of adaptation planning policies. Management plans that involve communities in monitoring the health of different ecosystems could also help build local capacity and inform effective long-term management.

Recommendation

• Identify suitable protected areas in collaboration with communities to ensure buy-in and long-term success of protecting ecosystems and livelihoods